admin – Pamela J. Smith

July 23, 2024July 24, 2024

How do copyrights affect economic development and international trade?

This article analyzes the effects of copyrights on economic development and international trade. First, we apply an aggregate production function to examine the effects of “copyright-related capital” (CRC) on development. This form of capital includes personal computers, servers, and bandwidth, which embody or transmit copyrighted materials. Second, we apply the gravity model of international trade to examine the effects of copyright policies on bilateral trade in core copyright industries. Third, we integrate the above frameworks to examine the two-stage effects of copyrights on development, and then on trade. We analyze these relationships using cross-sectional data for a large sample of countries. The findings show that a country’s CRC contributes positively to its economic development. The findings also show that the relative harmonization of copyright policies between countries has a positive effect on bilateral trade in core copyright industries. Finally, the findings show evidence of a two-stage process where a country’s CRC contributes positively to its economic development (stage 1), which then contributes positively to its trade (stage 2).

Citation:

Smith, Pamela J., Omar B. Da’ar, Kevin H. Monroe, Fabricio X. Nunez, and Charlotte J. Tuttle. 2009. How do copyrights affect economic development and international trade? Journal of World Intellectual Property 12 (3): 198-218.

July 11, 2024July 24, 2024

Are GMO policies “trade related”? Empirical analysis of Latin America

This paper empirically examines whether GMO policies are “trade related” for countries in Latin America (LA). First, we use the Balassa index to assess the “revealed comparative advantage” of LA countries. We find that LA countries have a revealed comparative advantage in GMO industries relative to the world, and that intra-regional trade in these industries is modest relative to external trade. Second, we estimate the Gravity model to examine the effects of importers’ GMO policies on Argentina and Brazil’s bilateral exports of soybeans and maize. We find that strong GMO policies in importers have a negative effect on Argentina’s bilateral exports of soybeans (an industry and country with historically high GMO content). Further, we find that past GMO policies are a strong determinant of Argentina’s future bilateral exports, and that the negative trade effects of strong GMO policies are increasing over time. In contrast, we find a weaker relationship between the GMO policies of importers and Brazil’s bilateral exports (consistent with Brazil’s more recent increases in GMO content). These findings for Argentina and Brazil provide a benchmark for other developing countries that are looking for guidance on servicing trading partners with diverse GMO policies.

Citation:

Smith, Pamela J., and Erik E. Katovich. 2017. Are GMO policies “trade related”? Empirical analysis of Latin America. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy 39 (2): 286-312.

June 24, 2024July 24, 2024

Determinants of comparative advantage in GMO-intensive industries

This paper examines the supply-side determinants of international trade in crops that are intensive in genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The theoretical framework is a variant of the Heckscher-Ohlin model which we estimate using cross-country data for 1995 and 2010 to examine soybeans, maize, and cotton trade. The data include measures of country land endowments which we disaggregate into GMO and non-GMO components, as well as recently released measures of GMO regulations. Findings show land endowments are a primary source of comparative advantage in GMO intensive industries before and after the advent of GMOs. Further, an increase in a country’s allocation of land to GMO crops has a positive effect on her net exports in GMO intensive industries. This positive effect occurs both across countries and time. Finally, a country’s GMO regulations have a negligible effect as a supply-side determinant of comparative advantage. However, a country’s decision about whether to adopt GMO technologies does matter to trade. These findings are robust with respect to a variety of considerations.

Citation:

Smith, Pamela J., Bolormaa Jamiyansuren, Akinori Kitsuki, Jooyoung Yang and Jaeseok Lee. 2018. Determinants of comparative advantage in GMO-intensive industries. The World Economy 17 (3): 427-449.

June 1, 2022July 24, 2024

How does TRIPs compliance affect the economic growth of developing countries?: Application of the Synthetic Control method

This paper examines the effects of intellectual property rights (IPRs) on the economic growth of countries, with special attention to developing countries. We examine both the strength of countries’ IPRs, as well as their compliance with the 1995 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) of the World Trade Organization. Our theoretical framework is a growth model which distinguishes capital as physical capital, human capital and intellectual property. Our methods include panel regression techniques, plus a novel Synthetic Control method. The latter is valuable for examining policy effects in research situations where data are limited to small sample sizes; and where reverse causality and heterogeneity are concerns. The Synthetic Control method allows us to assess the impact of TRIPs compliance on economic growth relative to a counterfactual of what would have occurred in the absence of compliance. The results show that while select developing countries experience growth benefits from complying with the TRIPs agreement, others do not, supporting the notion that there is a wide range of heterogeneity in the effects of IPR reforms on growth. These findings are robust when we account for marginal institutional changes in IPRs, enforcement of IPRs, and technological capacity in developing countries.

Citation:

Smith, Pamela J. and Sebastian J. Anti. 2022. How does TRIPs compliance affect the economic growth of developing countries?: Application of the Synthetic Control method. The World Economy 45 (12): 3873-3906.

May 1, 2022July 24, 2024

Intellectual property rights and trade: The exceptional case of GMOs

This paper examines how foreign intellectual property rights (IPRs) affect US bilateral exports of genetically modified crops (GMOs). We apply the structural gravity model to examine GMO trade between the United States and the countries that comprise the rest of the world. Our econometric method includes the Poisson Pseudo Maximum Likelihood estimator. We use panel data including measures of countries’ IPR regimes, plant patentability, plant variety rights, GMO regulations and asynchronous approvals of GMOs. Results show the United States tends to export fewer GMO crops to countries with strong IPR regimes, plant patentability and plant variety rights. These results are consistent with the market power effect, where the United States restricts exports to countries with strong protections to extract monopoly prices. Second, enforcement of IPRs strengthens the market power effect. Third, the market power effect is strong alongside with GMO regulations and asynchronous approvals. Fourth, the market power effect is larger for self-pollinating crops vs. hybrids. These findings are robust across a variety of specifications. However, we also find a price premium in countries with less ease of US market access, with more domestic production of GMOs, and with weak traceability requirements. These features play a stronger role than IPRs in determining price.

Citation:

Smith, Pamela J., and Xiangwen Kong. 2022. Intellectual property rights and trade: The exceptional case of GMOs. The World Economy 45 (3): 763-811.

April 1, 2022July 24, 2024

Patents for self-replicating technologies: Game theoretic analysis of genetically modified seed

This paper examines the implications of patents for farmers’ decisions to use genetically modified (GM) seed versus traditional non-GM seed. We consider a game theoretic approach employing the replicator equation to assess the conditions for farmers’ adoption decisions. The results show that farmers may choose GM seeds even when this decision leads to lower profits than using traditional seeds. This result emerges because of the self-replicating characteristic of the technology of seeds and their dispersion via acts of nature and/or intentional infringement. This result is robust across our baseline model and extended model that includes the option for farmers to intentionally infringe upon the GM seed technology. This result is also robust with respect to a wide range of initial conditions and parameter values representing economic conditions including the dispersal of the GM technology, monitoring effort, payoffs of GM seed relative to traditional seed, cost of patent infringement, cost of contamination, and added cost of legally using GM seed.

Citation:

Smith, Pamela J., and Andrew R. Tilman. 2020. Patents for self-replicating technologies: Game theoretic analysis of genetically modified seed. Journal of World Intellectual Property Rights 23 (3-4): 166-184.